Matrix of Perspectives on Learning

	Behaviorism	Cognitivism	Constructivism
Key principles	Focus is on animal behavior. Internal states ignored as too complicated to study.	Focus is on knowledge. Awareness of the world is encoded into mental "maps" which are then retrieved.	Focus is on understanding, which is the result of meaningful interactions with the world.
Theoretical model	Stimulus-Feedback-Response	Attention-Encoding-Retrieval	Analyze-Implement-Evaluate-Design-Develop
Instructional design focus	Arranging external contingencies conducive to shaping behaviors.	Arranging materials in order to faciliate encoding. Be cognizant of the preexisting mental categories that new material will fall into.	Model and guide. Arrange materials in a logical fashion as before, but be prepared to adapt materials to individual associations and relevancies.
strategies	•State objectives and break them down into steps. •Use contingencies to reinforce desired behaviors •Provide hints or cues that guide students to correct behavior.	•Organize new information. •Link new information to existing knowledge. •Use techniques to guide and support students' attention, encoding and retrieval process.	•Pose "good" problems, realistically complex and personally meaningful. •Create collaborative learning activities. •Model and guide the learning process.
theorists	Ivan Pavlov John B. Watson Edward L. Thorndike B. F. Skinner	Robert Gagne Jerome Bruner David Ausher	Len Vygotsky Jean Piaget John Dewey